Archaeologists and historians are unlocking startling new insights into a pivotal moment in human history—the brutal naval clash that birthed the Roman Empire. A meticulous examination of a one-of-a-kind victory monument overlooking the sea in northwest Greece is peeling back the mysteries of the epic sea battle fought in 31 BC between Octavian (Julius Caesar’s heir and Rome’s first emperor, later titled Augustus) and the allied forces of Egypt’s Queen Cleopatra and her Roman lover, Mark Antony.
Situated near the sprawling ruins of Nicopolis—Greece’s largest ancient ruined city, founded by Octavian to celebrate his triumph—the monument’s remnants are offering fresh clues to his victory at Actium, near a sacred Greek sanctuary. For over two millennia, scholars speculated that Cleopatra and Antony’s larger, less agile ships hindered their chances against Octavian’s nimbler fleet.
Archaeological evidence from excavations over the past 16 years, including six niches fully uncovered just 18 months ago (late 2023), confirms this theory, revealing how size became Octavian’s game-changing advantage.
The study centers on approximately 35 niches carved into the monument’s façade, designed to display bronze battering rams from Antony and Cleopatra’s defeated warships. After the battle, Octavian seized 350 enemy vessels, selecting rams from 35 key ships as trophies. Recent analysis—presented at the Archaeological Institute of America’s conference in San Diego in early 2025—shows these niches vary in size, each tailored to a specific ram, hinting at the massive scale of the defeated fleet. Some niches suggest rams supported by unusually thick “wale” timbers, indicating ships possibly up to 40 meters long—far larger than Octavian’s agile craft.
This evidence, paired with a 1st-century AD Roman poem by Philippus of Thessalonika describing the rams as “bronze-jawed witnesses to Actium,” is helping experts reconstruct the immense ramming power of Antony and Cleopatra’s armada. The largest niche, built for a ram 1.7 meters wide, 1.6 meters high, and up to 2.5 meters long, points to weapons four times larger than any previously found ancient ram. These giants, likely intended to breach harbor defenses or sink enemy hulls, underscore why Octavian’s strategy focused on outmaneuvering rather than confronting them head-on.
Funded by the Greek Ministry of Culture and the Stavros Niarchos Foundation, this research builds on efforts since 2019 to deepen our grasp of ancient naval warfare. Dr. Konstantinos Zachos, lead archaeologist and emeritus curator at the Greek Ministry of Culture, told The Independent, “This monument’s historical and archaeological significance is immense—ongoing analysis, including data from the latest digs, will likely illuminate even more about the battle that forged the Roman Empire.”
Professor William Murray of the University of South Florida, a naval warfare expert overseeing niche studies, added, “This data could transform our understanding of ram capabilities and the forces unleashed in such clashes.” His work, including The Age of Titans, underscores the era’s naval might.
Beyond the monument, Octavian’s legacy endures in Nicopolis (“City of Victory”), a city he built with over 20,000 relocated Greeks. Its ruins—featuring theaters, gates, walls, and a vast aqueduct—remain a tourist draw near Preveza in Epirus. Since 2019, conservation has accelerated, with the Nicopolis Theater restored by 2023 and a UNESCO World Heritage bid launched in 2022, aiming to unify the 14,000-acre site as an archaeopark. While the bronze rams vanished centuries ago—likely melted down amid Rome’s 5th-century decline—their empty niches stand as silent sentinels to both the empire’s rise and eventual fall.